The Path of Flames: Understanding and Responding to Fatal Wildfires

Description: The Path of Flames: Understanding and Responding to Fatal Wildfires is an edited volume covering the complexities of response and recovery issues relative to catastrophic wildfires. As wildfires become more frequent throughout the world—and the loss of life greater, especially among residents trapped in the path of the flames—it is essential that agencies in fire-prone areas understand the complexity of the response as it relates to finding and identifying the remains of those who perished. While covering wildfire dynamics, risks for vulnerable populations, and the emergency response to wildfires, this book focuses largely on the recovery of human remains within the context of the overall response to mass disasters resulting from wildfires. As such, search protocols, staffing needs, pre-event coordination and organization, and logistical support are addressed. The scientific basis for understanding how fire will affect human remains—as well as how the level of destruction can be interpreted—is also addressed. Recognizing the multidisciplinary nature of the field, this volume covers forensic issues relating to the recovery of remains, forensic anthropology, DNA analysis, forensic odontology, and forensic pathology. The book also includes contributions from international wildfire response professionals looking at global best practices in wildfire response and human remains recovery. Specifically, several chapters cover the lessons learned from the devasting Camp Fire of 2018 in California that led to the deaths of 85 people. The Camp Fire burned nearly 19,000 structures and was ultimately the most destructive—and deadly—in California’s history. The Path of Flames is a one-of-a-kind reference that serves as a valuable resource for professionals working in the areas of emergency services, search and rescue, law enforcement, fire service, disaster planning and response, victim recovery and identification, and mass disaster and mass fatality response. Table of contents : Cover Half Title Title Copyright Contents Foreword List of Contributors Section I OVERVIEW OF WILDFIRES AND WILDFIRE FATALITIES Chapter 1 Wildfires: Introduction, Impact, Policy, and Planning 1.1 International Factors 1.1.1 The Mediterranean Region 1.1.2 North America 1.1.3 Australia 1.2 The History of Wildfires in the Western US in the 20th/21st Century 1.2.1 Deadly Wildfires in California 1.3 Cost of Fire Suppression, Evacuation, and Recovery 1.3.1 Future Response to Climate Change 1.4 This Volume: Importance of Interdisciplinary Planning and Responses Chapter 2 Fatal Wildland Fires 2.1 Introduction: Reconstruction and Modeling 2.2 Fuels 2.3 Ignition Sources 2.4 Wildland Fire Development and Spread 2.4.1 Weather Data 2.5 Modeling of Wildland Fires 2.6 WUI Fires Chapter 3 An International Perspective on Fatal Wildfires 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Landscape Fire Fatalities around the Globe 3.3 Firefighter Fatalities in Landscape Fires around the World 3.4 Civilian Fatalities in Landscape Fires around the World 3.5 A Statistical Look at These Accidents 3.6 Discussion 3.6.1 Issues in the Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI) 3.6.2 A Holistic View of the Reasons behind Fire Disasters 3.7 Conclusions 3.7.1 The Future Section II WILDFIRE MANAGEMENT RESPONSE Chapter 4 Incident Command System: Resolving a Clash of Cultures 4.1 Incident Command System: Structure and Responsibility 4.1.1 Case Study: The CZU Lightning Complex Fire Event 4.2 Unified Command in the CZU Fire 4.3 Concluding Comments Chapter 5 Incident Command (IC) Role in Coordination (Logistics and Politics)—International Perspective 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Command, Control, and Coordination Defined 5.2.1 Command 5.2.2 Control 5.2.3 Coordination 5.3 CCC Systems in the International Context 5.4 The Cluster System 5.5 Challenges Present in International Command, Control, and Coordination 5.5.1 Involvement of Foreign Militaries in Domestic Relief, Response, and Recovery Operations 5.5.2 Image of “Weakness” among the Public or by the International Community 5.5.3 Protection of State Sovereignty 5.6 Global Examples of Incident Command and Coordination Systems 5.6.1 The Incident Command System (ICS) 5.6.2 The Coordinated Incident Management System (CIMS) (New Zealand) 5.7 The Australasian Inter-Service Incident Management System (AIIMS) (Australia) 5.7.1 The British Columbia Emergency Response Management System (BCERMS) (British Columbia, Canada) 5.7.2 Disaster Response Command System (Sistem Komando Penanganan Darurat Bencana—SKPDB) (Indonesia) 5.8 Conclusion Chapter 6 Law Enforcement Response to Wildfire 6.1 Law Enforcement Incident Response to Wildfire 6.1.1 Phase 1: In the Face of Fire 6.1.2 Phase 2: Beginning of Recovery 6.1.3 Phase 3: Repopulation 6.2 Issue of Overlapping Multiple Incidents 6.3 Tracking for Missing/Unaccounted-for Persons 6.4 Lessons Learned 6.5 Conclusions Chapter 7 Organization of the Fire Response: Establishing Priorities and the Future of Wildfire Management 7.1 Emergency Management and Wildfires 7.1.1 Incident Command System in Wildfires 7.1.2 Incident Management Teams 7.1.3 Unified Command 7.2 Cooperative Effort in Wildfire Management and Containment 7.2.1 Mutual Aid 7.2.2 Weight of Response 7.2.3 Role of Cooperators and Cooperating Agencies 7.2.4 Emergency Operation Centers (EOCs) 7.2.5 Evacuations 7.2.6 Containment 7.3 Recovery and Completion 7.3.1 Damage Inspections Chapter 8 Fire Investigation Overview 8.1 The Fundamentals of the Investigative Process 8.2 Tools and Equipment 8.3 The Fire Investigation Team 8.4 Starting the Investigation 8.5 Firefighting Efforts That Affect the Investigation 8.6 Scene Examination/Excavation 8.7 Fire Effects/Burn Patterns 8.7.1 Documentation 8.8 The Report 8.8.1 Wildfire Investigations as It Relates to Origin and Cause 8.9 Conclusions Section III MASS FATALITY RESPONSE Chapter 9 Human Behavior in Fire as Evidenced by Wildfire Fatalities 9.1 Human Behavior in the Face of Fire 9.1.1 Evacuation Research in Structural Fires 9.1.2 Wildfire Evacuation Behavior 9.2 Camp Fire Observations: Room Location with Highest Recovery Rates 9.3 Discussion 9.4 Conclusion: Impact on Recovery Chapter 10 How Human Bodies Burn: The Process of Thermal Damage, Body Movement, and Shifting Fuel Loads 10.1 Initial Conditions 10.2 Damage by Surrounding Fuel Load 10.2.1 Superficial Changes and Body Movement 10.2.2 Soft Tissue Loss and Bone Damage 10.2.3 Deep Tissue and Bone Loss 10.2.4 Alterations to the Pattern of Thermal Damage 10.3 Self-Sustained Burn Damage 10.4 Typical Appearance of Wildfire Bodies 10.5 Body Location in Structures and Problematic Search Techniques 10.6 Differentiating Wildfire Damage from Pre-Existing Cremations Stored in the Home 10.7 Conclusion Chapter 11 Deployment Strategies for SAR/USAR Teams 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Types of Search and Rescue Teams 11.3 Fundamentals of SAR Strategy 11.4 Search and Recovery Training and Wildfire Training 11.5 Mutual Aid for SAR/USAR in the Case of Wildfire 11.6 Search and Rescue Team Deployment in Wildfires 11.7 SAR Team Support 11.8 Lessons Learned from Recent Wildfires Chapter 12 Search and Recovery Protocols for Victims of Large-Scale Wildfires 12.1 Current Protocols for Recovery of Fatal Fire Victims 12.1.1 Fatal Fire Search and Recovery Methods 12.2 Modified Protocols for Search and Recovery of Wildfire Victims 12.2.1 Wildfire Fatality Search and Recovery Methods 12.2.2 Search Organization 12.2.3 Recovery Operations 12.3 Comparison of Protocols for Search and Recovery of Fatal Fire Victims 12.4 Conclusion: Lessons Learned from the 2018 Camp Fire Recovery Effort and Subsequent Fires Chapter 13 To Be Ready: Preparations for Fatal Wildfire Recovery Operations 13.1 Identification of Staffing Possibilities 13.2 Deployment Expectations 13.3 Hazards Expected in the Field 13.4 Equipment and Personal Supplies 13.5 Regional Preparation 13.6 Conclusion Section IV POST-RECOVERY PROCESSES FOLLOWING A MASS FATALITY Chapter 14 Morgue Operations during a Mass Fatality Event 14.1 Preparation 14.2 Temporary versus Permanent Morgue Sites 14.3 Routine Work during an Event 14.4 What Are the Morgue Facility Needs during an Event? 14.4.1 Admitting Station 14.4.2 Receiving Station 14.4.3 Screening/Triage 14.4.4 Documentation Station 14.4.5 Print Station 14.4.6 Pathology Station/Room 14.4.7 Anthropology Station/Room 14.4.8 Odontology Station 14.4.9 DNA Station 14.4.10 Final Holding Station 14.4.11 Final Identification Review 14.4.12 After Care Station 14.4.13 Final Release Station 14.5 Case Study: Morgue Stations for the Camp Fire Victims 14.6 Documentation 14.7 Issues Specific to Wildfire Deaths 14.7.1 Media 14.7.2 The Standard for Identification 14.7.3 Dignity 14.7.4 Teamwork 14.8 Conclusions Chapter 15 Role of the Forensic Pathologist in the Wake of a Fatal Wildfire 15.1 Introduction: Role of the Forensic Pathologist 15.2 Major Questions Addressed by the Forensic Pathologist: Specific Challenges with Conflagration 15.3 Basic Autopsy Procedures 15.4 Specific Challenges More in Depth—Identification 15.5 Specific Challenges More in Depth—Alive at the Time of the Fire? 15.6 Final Words Chapter 16 Forensic Odontology in the Identification of Wildfire Victims 16.1 Forensic Odontology and the Camp Fire: Dealing with Disaster 16.1.1 Postmortem Dentition 16.1.2 Antemortem Records 16.1.3 Comparison of Postmortem and Antemortem Records 16.2 Lessons Learned 16.3 The Path Forward Chapter 17 Anthropological Responsibilities in Post-Recovery Analysis 17.1 Circumstances of the Camp Fire Morgue Analysis 17.2 Morgue Processing of Wildfire Decedents 17.3 Anthropological Considerations 17.3.1 Human/Nonhuman/Non-osseous Material 17.3.2 Material for Positive Identification 17.3.3 Incomplete Recovery 17.3.4 Split Recovery 17.3.5 Commingled Recovery 17.4 Lessons Learned 17.4.1 Pace of Analysis 17.4.2 Importance of Locations 17.4.3 Limitations of Available Information 17.4.4 Separation of Commingled Remains 17.4.5 Value of Small Bones 17.4.6 Importance of Teamwork and Preparation 17.5 Areas for Future Research Chapter 18 A Practical Guide for Implementation of Rapid DNA Identification in Mass Fatality Events: Lessons Learned from the 2018 Camp Fire 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Introduction to Rapid DNA Identification 18.3 Introduction to the 2018 Camp Fire 18.4 Rapid DNA Processing of Unidentified Human Remains during the Camp Fire 18.5 Victim Identification Based on Rapid DNA Results 18.6 Integration of Rapid DNA Analysis with Conventional Identification Modalities 18.7 Conclusions Chapter 19 Operation Northleigh—the Grenfell Tower Disaster Victim Identification Process 19.1 Description of the Incident 19.2 The INTERPOL Disaster Victim Identification Guide 19.3 Overview of the Operation Northleigh Mortuary Process 19.4 Operation Northleigh Forensic Anthropology Protocols 19.5 Forensic Anthropology Unique Reference Number (URN) Classification System 19.6 Forensic Anthropology Standard Operating Protocols 19.7 Preliminary Anthropology Assessment 19.8 Case Document Review 19.9 INTERPOL DVI Appendices 19.10 Forensic Anthropology Examination 19.11 Biological Profile 19.12 Age-at-Death 19.13 Sex 19.14 Ancestry 19.15 Stature 19.16 Skeletal Variation and Individuating Features 19.17 Thermal Damage 19.18 Attribution of Human Remains 19.19 Disassociation of Human Remains 19.20 Reassociation of Human Remains 19.21 Calculation of Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI) 19.22 Repatriation 19.23 Cultural and Religious Considerations 19.24 Conclusion Section V THE IMPACT OF WILDFIRES Chapter 20 Demographics and Locational Analyses of Wildfire Victims 20.1 Introduction 20.2 The Risk of WUI Residential Development 20.2.1 Demographics and Geographic Distribution of the Fatalities 20.3 Social Networks and Connections of Camp Fire Victims 20.3.1 Case Studies from the Camp Fire 20.4 Conclusion Chapter 21 Demographic Vulnerabilities and Wildfire Fatalities 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Materials and Methods 21.2.1 Pre- and Post-1990 Fatal California Wildfires 21.2.2 Australian Black Saturday Bushfires Fatalities 21.2.3 Missing Data 21.3 Results 21.3.1 Recent (1990–2020) California Wildfire Fatalities 21.3.2 Early (1933–89) and Recent California Wildfire Fatalities 21.3.3 Australian Black Saturday Bushfires and Recent California Wildfire Fatalities 21.4 Discussion, Comparisons, and Limitations 21.4.1 Age 21.4.2 Sex 21.4.3 Societal Disability and Physical Impairment 21.4.4 Some Social Factors 21.4.5 Firefighters 21.4.6 Limitations 21.5 Summary and Conclusions Chapter 22 Psychological Effects of Mass Disasters on First Responders 22.1 Introduction: First Responders and Mass Disasters 22.2 Who Are the First Responders in Large-Scale Disasters? 22.3 Overview of Psychological Impacts of Disasters on First Responders 22.4 How Disaster Response Work Impacts First Responders 22.5 Awareness 22.5.1 Ethical and Legal and Considerations 22.6 How First Responders Are Impacted by the Stress of Disaster Work 22.6.1 The Compassion Fatigue Continuum 22.6.2 Stress Encountered from Work Conditions: Burnout 22.6.3 Minimum Standards for Preparing Responders 22.6.4 Special Considerations for Volunteer Responders 22.6.5 Barriers to Obtaining Help for Psychological Impacts of Disaster Work 22.7 Ongoing and Future Opportunities 22.8 Conclusion Chapter 23 Concluding Thoughts and Lessons Learned 23.1 Preparation 23.2 Collaboration 23.3 Open Lines of Communication 23.4 Changing Worldview of First and Last Responder Index